Newsletter Volume 10, Issue 1 March 2025

1. Introduction

Sustainable development, climate change and disaster risks are fundamentally interlinked. Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) depends on reducing the impacts of climate change and increasing the resilience of communities. Transitioning to more sustainable pathways mitigates emissions and reduces vulnerability to disasters. Yet action taken in one of these areas has the potential to either undermine or support success on the others. It is critical to pursue integrated strategies and solutions that maximize synergies. This paper explores the interconnections between these global agendas and identifies the vital role that civil engineers can play in delivering such synergies.
 

2. Progress of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

2.1. Background

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 (United Nations, 2015a). Comprising 17 SDGs and 169 targets to be achieved by 2030, it is a global commitment to achieving sustainable development in its three dimensions: economic, social, and environmental. The SDGs build on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were to be achieved by 2015. Compared to the MDGs, the SDGs are considerably more comprehensive and ambitious, as well as universal — requiring action by all Member States, not only by developing countries.

2.2. Progress to date

The following summary of SDG progress is based on the annual reports of the UN Secretary-General (e.g., United Nations 2024) as well as independent analysis by Our World In Data (e.g., 2023) and Sustainable Development Report (e.g., Sachs et al., 2024).

Since 2020 progress has stalled — and even regressed — due to a confluence of global crises, including the COVID-19 pandemic, armed conflicts, trade tensions, and the accelerating impacts of climate change. SDG 1 is far off track, with an additional 23 million people living in extreme poverty in 2022 compared to 2019. The same period saw an additional 123 million more people suffering from hunger (SDG 2). On health and well-being (SDG 3) progress has slowed, particularly on maternal mortality, premature deaths from major non-communicable diseases, and access to essential healthcare. Improvements in education (SDG 4) have also slowed, including the percentage of young people completing upper secondary school (from 53% in 2015 to 59% in 2023). The pace of progress on gender equality (SDG 5) remains insufficient, with persistent inequality and high levels of violence against women and girls.

Action on the climate crisis (SDG 13) is increasingly urgent, with greenhouse gas (GHG) levels rising to record highs. The natural environment (SDG 14 and SDG 15) has continued to decline rapidly. Marine ecosystems are increasingly threatened by pollution, ocean acidification and declining fish stocks. Biodiversity on land faces a decline of forest areas and an increasing rate of species extinction.

As of 2024, only 17% of SDG targets are on track to be achieved by 2030 (United Nations, 2024). For the remaining targets, 48% have deviated moderately or severely, on 30% progress is marginal, and 18% exhibit moderate progress. Stagnation is evident for 18% of targets, and 17% have regressed below the 2015 baseline. Progress varies significantly across countries and regions, with a widening gap between the progress of the poorest and most vulnerable countries, and the average country (Sachs et al. 2024).

2.3. Priorities to Accelerate Progress

The latest progress report of the UN Secretary-General (United Nations 2024) identifies several priorities to accelerate progress on the SDGs. First is reducing conflict and violence, recognising that peace is a prerequisite for sustainable development. Second, reform of the international financial system is needed to unlock financing for developing countries. Third, transitions around energy, food, and digital connectivity must be harnessed for transformative progress across the goals.
 

3. Insights from Recent Climate COPs: Challenges, Outcomes and Future

3.1. Background

The ‘Conference of the Parties’ (COP), is the supreme decision-making body of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Paris Agreement, adopted by 196 countries at COP21 in 2015, is a legally binding international treaty on climate change that targets to hold the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C (United Nations, 2015b). COP28 (December 2023, Dubai, UAE) marked a critical turning point with its first Global Stocktake of progress on implementing the Paris Agreement.

Issues that were central in the discussion during recent COPs include: (1) the imperative of limiting global temperature rise and responding to surging intensity, frequency and seasonality of extreme weather and climate events, (2) facts around rising energy prices, global food insecurity and water crisis exacerbated by climate change and non-climate factors, (3) the importance of equity questions and the best available science, (4) recognition of the fundamental linkage of climate change and action with other sectors and systems, and (5) insufficient extent of action due to finance, technological and capacity constraints (Arora, 2024; Jiang et al., 2024; Naylor & Ford, 2023; Pflieger, 2023).

3.2. Key Outcomes and Measures

The Global Stocktake is considered the main outcome of COP28, helping to develop stronger Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which are due by February 2025. Key takeaways include:

(1) The ‘beginning of the end’ for the fossil fuel era

For the first time, countries agreed on the need to transition away from fossil fuels in energy systems, with actions accelerating during this decade to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 in accordance with best available science (IEA, 2023; IRENA, 2023). The measures include trebling renewable energy capacity and doubling the global average annual rate of energy efficiency by 2030.

(2) Operationalizing loss and damage

A decision to set up a new dedicated fund under the UNFCCC was adopted (UNFCCC, 2023). Nineteen countries have committed a total of USD 792 million to the fund to date (UNFCCC, 2023). Yet contributions remain inadequate — the estimated loss and damage funding required in developing countries is approximately USD 380 billion/year, a figure expected to grow (Markandya & González-Eguino, 2019).

(3) Increasing climate finance

Climate finance received a boost, including new funding of USD 12.8 billion pledged to the Green Climate Fund (GCF), new commitments of USD 174 million to the Least Developed Countries Fund and Special Climate Change Fund and USD 188 million pledges to the Adaptation Fund (UNFCCC, 2023). The Global Stocktake also underscored reforming the multilateral financial architecture, scaling up grants and concessional finance and mobilizing new and innovative sources of finance (UNFCCC, 2023).

(4) Enhancing global efforts to strengthen resilience

The agreement on targets for the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) framework in relation to the dimensions of the iterative adaptation cycle (i.e., assessment, planning, implementation and monitoring) strengthens long-term transformational and incremental adaptation efforts and support. Most relevant to engineering fields are targets on increasing the resilience of infrastructure and human settlements, enhancing climate resilience to water-related hazards and accelerating the use of ecosystem-based adaptation and nature-based solutions (UNFCCC, 2023). Countries also established a 2-year UAE-Belém work program on the development of indicators for measuring progress achieved towards the targets.

(5) Linking climate action with nature conservation

Countries were called on to consider ecosystems, biodiversity and carbon stores when developing their updated NDCs (UNFCCC, 2023). The COP28 decision also emphasized the importance of nature and ecosystem conservation, protection and restoration through protecting terrestrial and marine ecosystems and reversing deforestation and forest degradation by 2030. Nature-based solutions were also recognized as key to mitigating climate change and protecting vulnerable communities.

3.3. Looking Ahead and Opportunities for Progress

Follow-up issues relevant to the science and engineering fields include the following:

(1) Synergizing climate action in energy infrastructure

Countries are strategically planning to increase utilization of renewable energy, specifically solar and wind, to triple renewable power by 2030 (IRENA, 2023). Yet systematic means for planners and engineers to integrate climate mitigation and adaptation into energy infrastructure projects are limited at the point of delivery (UNOPS, 2021; Wernersson et al., 2024). Integrating climate actions in the energy infrastructure lifecycle can contribute to a wide range of SDG targets, and an in-depth understanding of climate action and SDG trade-offs can benefit research on synergies of energy projects (Wernersson et al., 2024).

(2) Promoting climate-positive infrastructure systems

Infrastructure is at the heart of climate-compatible development (Thacker et al., 2019; UNOPS, 2021). Extending the implementation of climate-positive design principles to built-environment projects holds considerable promise to reduce climate vulnerability and enhance societal resilience to climate impacts (Dolan, 2024). Potential actions include prioritizing the use of nature-based solutions at the delivery stage of transport projects by managing stormwater locally through natural vegetation (UNOPS, 2021).

(3) Leveraging the full potential of climate technologies

There are opportunities to broaden the scope of climate solutions considered in national and sub-national climate plans. Technology choices could support demand-side solutions, such as transport modes and building designs, for mitigating climate change that are synergistic with well-being (Creutzig et al., 2022). Balancing complex and high-tech solutions with low-tech and accessible options can leverage the full potential of climate technology in the development and implementation of NDCs (WIPO, 2023).

(4) Emphasizing the ethics of climate engineering

There are opportunities for geoengineering — deliberate and massive intervention in the Earth’s climate system as a potential means to mitigate ongoing climate change. Examples include carbon dioxide removal (CDR) from the atmosphere or allowing more infrared radiation to escape through solar radiation modification (SRM). However, there are still important uncertainties and risks around such technologies (Pflieger, 2023). Ethical evaluation of climate engineering techniques is necessary and should consider the level of scientific knowledge, cultural assumption and risk distribution of such relevant technologies (UNESCO, 2023). Simultaneously, more research is needed to understand and mitigate the potential failure of climate engineering technologies to develop at scale (Achakulwisut et al., 2023).
 

4. Interconnectedness between Disaster Risks, Climate Change and SDGs

The following short case studies are based on the UNU-EHS Interconnected Disaster Risks report, illustrating the intricate connections between human activities, environmental changes and disaster risks.

4.1. Lagos Floods

A major flood hit the city in July 2021, submerging cars and houses, and bringing the metropolis to a standstill. The low-lying, flat topography coupled with many areas at or below sea level contributed to the disaster-prone characteristic of the city (Ajibade, 2017). Low elevation and land subsidence of around 87mm per year, combined with mass drainage problems, lead to trapped and built-up water when heavy rainfall or storms hit (Adeloye & Rustum, 2015). Despite these challenges, the population in Lagos is projected to grow from approximately 15 million in 2022 to more than 88 million in 2100 (Hoornweg & Pope, 2017). One of the key “pull factors” is sand mining, a lucrative industry that particularly attracts young people looking to boost their livelihoods (Remi & Adegoke, 2011). Sand is in high demand as a raw material to produce cement, concrete, glass and asphalt for infrastructure projects, and its exploitation is leading to irreversible erosion of the coastline, degrading coastal ecosystems (UNEP, 2022).

Restoring ecosystem services, such as the mangrove forests found extensively along Nigeria’s coast, can address the drivers of flood risks in Lagos and other parts of the world. The root system of such mangroves is good at diffusing wave energy — wave height can be reduced up to 66% per 100m of mangrove forest. Constructing sustainable urban drainage systems using innovative materials such as porous asphalt has also proven effective for flood management in coastal cities including London and New York (Charlesworth et al., 2016). A third option is to adopt circular approaches, such as storing, processing, and recovering raw material from urban waste to re-use in construction or other sectors, at a similar cost to new raw materials. Sustainable materials can also be used in the construction industry. Massive timber made of glued laminated pieces of wood aims to replace concrete building materials, alleviating the need for sand while reducing associated GHGs, which account for 11% of global GHG emissions (Roberts, 2020).

4.2. Groundwater Depletion

Groundwater refers to freshwater resource stored in underground reservoirs called aquifers. Groundwater extracted from aquifers provides fresh drinking water to over 2 billion people, and 70% of groundwater withdrawals are used for agricultural purposes (Kundzewicz & Döll, 2009; UN-Water, 2022). Yet 21 out of 37 top global aquifer systems are showing negative groundwater level trends as the depletion speed is faster than that of recharge (Richey et al., 2015). For example, Saudi Arabia, having no permanent lakes or rivers and with little rainfall, has one of the world's largest aquifer systems and was able to grow wheat in the desert. The relationship between groundwater extraction and agricultural production for global food supply means that local problems can quickly become global issues. Saudi Arabia was once the sixth-largest wheat exporter, but with over 80% of its aquifer depleted, the government halted wheat production and shifted to wheat imports in 2016 (Novo, 2019; Mousa, 2022; Halverson, 2015).

Groundwater depletion can be addressed by avoiding, adapting and transforming. First, it is important to balance groundwater withdrawals to the aquifer's recharge rates, to avoid crossing the groundwater depletion risk tipping point. Technical interventions may include practices as small as fixing water leakages in drip irrigation and improving irrigation scheduling. Second, alternative water resources can be adapted to relieve the pressure on aquifers. For example, treated grey, black and desalinized water can be used for crop irrigation and non-potable domestic use. All of these methods require transforming how society values, utilizes and manages groundwater resources. A shared understanding of sustainable use of finite groundwater resources to meet the needs of current and future generations is critical.

4.3. Extreme Heat

Currently, around 30% of the global population is exposed to dangerous temperature and humidity conditions for at least 20 days per year, and this population could increase up to 74% by 2100 if GHG emissions continue to increase (Mora et al., 2017). The solution is complicated. First, reducing GHG emissions will limit planetary warming, but even with drastic reductions the global temperature may still increase by 2.4°C compared to the 1902–1960 level (Lindsey & Dahlman, 2024). Second, practical actions including urban planning can contribute to an overall risk reduction strategy (Fernandez Milan & Creutzig, 2015). For example, information on spatial distribution of the heat risk across a city can assist the planning and implementation of targeted interventions. Active and passive cooling strategies may also be considered. While active cooling relies on electricity, whose generation could contribute to GHG emissions, passive cooling does not. For instance, high-albedo materials such as reflective or white coatings on building or pavements can reduce air temperature in urban settings by reflecting solar energy rather than absorbing it (Santamouris et al., 2007). Low tech and low-cost solutions such as tree planting and vegetation on available surfaces have been useful (Moss et al., 2019). “Sponge cities” can scale up these benefits, with permeable pavements and green spaces increasing shade and evapotranspiration to mitigate heat impacts, absorbing rainwater for flood prevention and groundwater recharge (Simon, 2022).

4.4. Uninsurable Future

The damage caused by weather-related disasters has increased seven-fold since the 1970s, causing insurance prices to rise and harming the viability of insurance for many (Douris et al., 2021). Climate change continues to shift the landscape of insurance as the number of severe and frequent disasters is forecasted to double globally by 2040 (Swiss Re Institute, 2021). In places facing extreme weather events, home insurance premiums have increased as much as 57% since 2015 (Debra Kamin, 2023). Once insurance is no longer available nor offered, sufficient coverage is no longer accessible, and premiums are no longer affordable, a place can be classified as "uninsurable".

Social and economic pressures are influencing more people to flock to high-risk places along coasts, rivers, floodplains and wildland-urban interfaces (Arthur Charpentier, 2008). Policies that insufficiently consider future risks impact not only individuals’ exposure to disasters but also directly influence hazards. For instance, when natural soil surfaces are covered with asphalt or concrete or compacted through improper agricultural practices, rainwater absorption is hindered, leading to an increased risk of flash floods.

One obvious option is the managed relocation of people away from high-risk areas (Surminski, 2023). Investment can also play a crucial role in mitigating underlying risks. Exposure to climate-related hazards can be minimized by adopting innovative defenses that prioritize nature-based solutions. For instance, strategies like rewilding urban spaces and implementing hybrid infrastructure can enhance resilience to extreme weather events. An example is the restoration of shellfish reefs and adjacent coastal vegetated ecosystems in Australia (NESP Earth Systems and Climate Change Hub, 2021). Even with these innovative approaches, construction in vulnerable zones must be discouraged through red-zoning, while options for strategic relocation from high-risk areas continue to be investigated.

5. What can civil engineers do in the process of climate change?

Infrastructure investment and use have a significant impact on global GHG emissions, and ultimately on climate change. Approximately 70% of global GHG emissions emanate from infrastructure construction and operations such as power plants, buildings and transportation systems (The World Bank, 2018). Two-thirds of these emissions are attributed to the energy sector. The current business-as-usual scenario would have considerable negative impact by 2050. Based on the current rate of emissions from key infrastructure industries, more than 720 million people would be pushed into extreme poverty, with projected deaths per year rising from 150,000 to 250,000 (WHO, 2023). Most of these casualties are expected to be in emerging-market and developing economies, which are densely populated and act as global growth engines, attracting massive infrastructure investment and spending. Thus, a shift in the allocation of resources from carbon-intensive infrastructure to low-carbon infrastructure is needed. Low-carbon infrastructure helps build resilience in vulnerable countries and protects against exposure to extreme climate change events. Most importantly, low-carbon infrastructure is crucial for preventing a reversal of development gains made so far, particularly in emerging markets and developing economies that house communities with disproportionate exposure to climate change impacts (Pollard, 2021).

There are two main ways in which civil engineers can contribute to improve social outcomes for people related to climate change. The first is mitigation, where the aim is to reduce the amount of GHG emissions (Pollard, 2021). This can be achieved by developing renewable energy systems, using low-carbon construction materials such as timber or electrifying transport networks. Engineers can also increase the amount of carbon capture in communities that they design, through introducing more trees and green spaces (James, 2021). Concrete production is responsible for 8% of the world's CO2 emissions (Isabel Malsang, 2021); even a small reduction of its carbon footprint can make a massive difference. Technology advancements are widening choices, such as carbon capture, utilization and storage technologies to capture up to 100% of the carbon emissions from cement manufacturing (Carbon Cure, 2020). These captured emissions can be stored safely underground, injected back into concrete to strengthen it, or used to make other products like synthetic aggregates or fuels (World Economic Forum, 2023).

The second way is adaptation, by adjusting to current or expected climate change and its effects. For civil engineers this means designing infrastructure to survive extreme weather conditions, ensuring that it provides benefits to people even in a warming world. An example is flood defense — such as the Boston Barrier under construction in Lincolnshire, United Kingdom, which is expected to greatly reduce the flood risk for over 14,000 homes and 800 businesses for the next 100 years (Environment Agency, 2020).

 

6. Concluding remarks

Synergistic approaches and integrated solutions are crucial to achieve the SDGs, overcome the climate crisis, and reduce disaster risks. The deep and complex interconnections between these agendas are starkly evident in recent disasters across the globe. Shifting to low-carbon infrastructure has massive potential to accelerate climate action and build resilience in vulnerable countries. Civil engineers can improve outcomes in both mitigation and adaptation even through incremental changes, and technological advancements are increasingly creating opportunities for greater impact.

Disclaimer

The views expressed herein are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations University.

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