Newsletter Volume 10, Issue 1 March 2025
Technical Reports
Synergistic Application of Wood Pellet Fly Ash Blended Binder-Stabilized Sandy Soils for sustainable ground improvement in Various Geotechnical Applications
Synergistic Application of Wood Pellet Fly Ash Blended Binder-Stabilized Sandy Soils for sustainable ground improvement in Various Geotechnical Applications
Jebie Balagosa
Non-Resident Postdoctoral Researcher, Dept. of Civil & Envi. Eng., Kongju Nat’l Univ, Cheonan
Associate Member, Philippine Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Eng. Central Philippine University, Jaro, Iloilo
Non-Resident Postdoctoral Researcher, Dept. of Civil & Envi. Eng., Kongju Nat’l Univ, Cheonan
Associate Member, Philippine Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Eng. Central Philippine University, Jaro, Iloilo
Yun Wook Choo
Professor, Dept. of Civil & Envi. Eng., Kongju Nat’l Univ, Cheonan
Abstract
This research investigates the use of Wood Pellet Fly Ash Blended Binder (WABB) for sustainable soil stabilization. Designed to incorporate 50% wood pellet fly ash (WA), 30% ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), and 20% cement, WABB aims to utilize a large volume of WA while delivering enhanced mechanical properties for various soils. The study focuses on collapsible sandy soil, such as weathered granite soils (WS), silica sands (SiS), and Saemangeum sands (SaeS). Laboratory tests, including free-free resonant column (FFRC) tests and unconfined compressive strength tests (UCT), were conducted to evaluate the dynamic stiffness and strength properties of WABB-treated soils over curing durations. Results demonstrate that WABB enhances strength, stiffness, and durability, meeting the strength guidelines set by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) for various soil-based structures such as subgrades, embankments, and liquefaction mitigation. These findings highlight WABB’s potential as an eco-friendly and efficient alternative for sustainable geotechnical applications.
Keywords: wood pellet fly ash blended binder, sustainable, soil stabilization, free-free resonant column, unconfined compressive strength
1. Introduction
Ground improvement through soil stabilization is an essential method for enhancing soil properties, particularly strength and resistance to liquefaction. This is achieved by incorporating cementitious binders that transform weak soils into more stable and load-bearing materials (Ikeagwuani et al., 2019; Balagosa et al., 2024). Sandy soils, often prone to deformation and instability when subjected to heavy loads or saturation, present significant challenges in construction, especially for large-scale infrastructure projects (Horpibulsuk et al., 2012).
Sustainable alternatives to traditional binders have gained traction, with biomass-derived materials like Wood Pellet Fly Ash (WA) showing promise. WA, a by-product of wood pellet combustion, is rich in silica and alumina, making it suitable for use as an eco-friendly stabilizer when blended with ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and cement (Abrams, 1918; Kim et al., 2021; Yi et al., 2014; Aguilar et al., 2024). This study explores the potential of Wood Pellet Fly Ash Blended Binder (WABB) as a sustainable soil stabilizer, leveraging its reactivity and durability to address the challenges of stabilizing sandy soils.
WA, a byproduct of burnt wood pellets during energy production, is becoming increasingly prevalent. This increase is due to the growing global preference for sustainable energy sources, with a global wood pellet production reaching 48.8 million metric tons in 2022 from major contributors such as the European Union (21 million tons), North America (14.3 million tons), Vietnam (3.5 million tons), and other regional producers such as China, Thailand, Indonesia, Russia, and Australia (Thek and Obernberger, 2012). Assuming an average ash content of 2% (Junginger et al., 2014), this equates to approximately 980,000 metric tons of WA produced annually worldwide.
South Korea’s rising bioenergy demand has notably influenced its energy policies to curtail carbon emissions (MOTIE 2017a, 2017b), positioning it as a major player in the global biomass market (Milko, 2024). In 2022, South Korea consumed approximately 4.6 million tons of wood pellets (Lee et al., 2023), of which a majority were imported (Chu et al., 2023). The increase in wood pellet energy production leads to an estimated 92,000 metric tons of WA in 2022, which is typically disposed of in landfills. The rise in WA by-products risks saturating landfills, raising environmental concerns, particularly groundwater contamination from leachate interactions. Hence, this study investigates the use of WA as a soil stabilizer in large-scale applications, particularly as an additive binder for soil-cement columns.
Stabilizing road networks in sandy and collapsible soils is critical for press-in pile operations. Properly stabilized roads ensure the smooth entry and operation of heavy equipment, minimizing delays, equipment wear, and energy consumption. This study investigates WABB's efficiency for sustainable ground improvement in various geotechnical applications.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
Three types of soils were selected for this study: Silica Sand (SiS), Saemangeum Sand (SaeS), and Weathered Granite Soil (WS). The properties of these soils are summarized in Table 1. SiS and SaeS are poorly graded sands classified under USCS as SP, while WS includes two variants—WS1 (SP) and WS2 (SM). The chemical properties of WABB constituents, including Wood Pellet Fly Ash (WA), GGBS, and cement, are summarized in Table 2. WA was sourced from biomass power plants in South Korea, featuring a high pH (>12) and fine particle size (d50 = 15.347 x 10-3 mm), making it a reactive component in soil stabilization.
2.2 Laboratory Preparation
A total of 84 specimens were prepared, consisting of 27 each of weathered soil (WS), silica sand (SiS), and Saemangeum sand (SaeS) mixed with wood pellet fly ash blended binder (WABB) composed of dry 50% WA, 30% GGBS, and 20% cement at proportions of 10%, 15%, and 25% by dry mass. The WABB mixed WS were prepared by dry mixing at a high compaction state. Following the optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) of WS with WA at 5%, 15%, and 25%, performed on a separate project. Whereas SiS and SaeS were initially pre-mixed with 8% water by hand for three minutes, after which WABB, prepared with a water-binder ratio of 0.5, was blended into the mixture using a laboratory mixer. The mixtures were then compacted into cylindrical molds (50 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height) in five layers using an 8-mm rod, achieving the target mold densities (ρmold?) were 1.945 ± 05 g/cm³ for WS-WABB, 1.745 ± 05 g/cm³ for SiS-WABB, and 1.656 ± 05 g/cm³ for SaeS-WABB. Then, the specimens were sealed with plastic wrap and cured at 25 ± 1 °C in a controlled chamber with 85 ± 2% humidity for durations of 7, 14, and 28 days, replicating shallow ground conditions without direct immersion in water. Free-free resonant column (FFRC) and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were conducted on all specimens to evaluate their dynamic and compressive properties. Full details of the testing procedures and calculations are available in Balagosa et al. (2024).
3. Results and Discussions
The WS-WABB showed significant strength development between 7 and 28 days, with the compressive wave velocities (Vp) range of 2146 to 2506 m/s and unconfined compressive strength (qu) increasing from 2.82 MPa at 7 days to 6.67 MPa at 28 days for WS (75%) mixed with 25% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%) (Balagosa et al., 2025). These values exceed ACI-230 standards for subbase (1.4 MPa) and base layer (3.5 MPa) applications (ACI, 2009), as well as FHWA requirements for deep mixing of embankments (2.1 MPa) and liquefaction mitigation (4 MPa) (Bruce et al., 2013). At 15% WABB (WS=85% mixed with 15% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)), the qu peaked at 3.5 MPa by 28 days, qualifying for subbase and base layers, while 5% WABB (WS=95% mixed with 5% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)) showed progressive strength but did not meet thresholds for high-stress applications. On the other hand, SiS-WABB specimens demonstrated excellent performance at 25% WABB (SiS=75% mixed with 25% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)), with Vp values of 1461 to 2083 m/s and qu values reaching approximately 0.7 MPa by 7 days and exceeding 1.4 MPa at 14 days, qualifying them for ACI-229 standards for well-compacted backfill (0.3–0.7 MPa) and ACI-230 subbase and subgrade applications. Both 15% (SiS=85% mixed with 15% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)) and 25% WABB (SiS=75% mixed with 25% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)) mobilized 90% of the maximum qu by 14 days, highlighting their effective cementation. Whereas SaeS-WABB, despite its coastal salinity, exhibited substantial strength gain at 25% WABB (SaeS=75% mixed with 25% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)), with Vp values of 1769 to 2258 m/s and qu values ranging from 0.3–0.7 MPa at 7 days to over 2.1 MPa at 14 days, meeting FHWA requirements for embankments and foundations. Lower dosages 10% (SaeS=90% mixed with 10% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)) and 15% WABB (SiS=85% mixed with 15% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)) demonstrated reduce WABB cementation capacity.
4. Conclusion
This study examined the effects of WABB on the dynamic and strength properties of silica sand (SiS), Saemangeum sand (SaeS), and albite-based weathered soils (WS). WABB was mixed with these soils at varying proportions, and a series of FFRC and UCT tests were conducted to evaluate the changes in their mechanical properties over curing time. The following conclusions were drawn:
Acknowledgements:
This work was supported by the field technology research and development project (2020-Field-01) funded by the Korea South-East Power co. (KOEN) and partially by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government and the Ministry of Science and ICT (MSIT) (No. RS-2021-NR059360 and No.RS-2024–00406320) the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) and the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy(MOTIE) of the Republic of Korea (No. RS-2022-KP002820).
References:
Abrams, D.A. (1918). Design of Concrete Mixtures. Bulletin No. 1, Lewis Institute, Chicago.
Aguilar, F.X., Glavonjic, B., Mabee, W., & Vinterbäck, J. (2024). Wood pellets and wood fuel: UNECE/FAO Data Brief 2023. United Nations and Food and Agriculture Organization.
American Concrete Institute (ACI) (2009). 230.1R-09 Report on Soil Cement.
Balagosa, J., Lee, M.-J., Choo, Y.W., Kim, H.-S., & Kim, J.-M. (2024). Dynamic property growth of weathered granite soils stabilized with wood pellet fly ash. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 180, 108627.
Balagosa, J., Seo, S. G., Cho, D. S., Lee, M. J., Choo, Y. W., Kim, H. S., & Kim, J. M. (2025). Field Case Study of Soil Columns Mixed with Wood Pellet Fly Ash Blended Binder in Weathered Granite Soils. Case Studies in Construction Materials, e04378.
Bruce, M.E.C., Berg, R.R., Filz, G.M., Terashi, M., Yang, D.S., & Collin, J.G. (2013). Federal Highway Administration Design Manual: Deep Mixing for Embankment and Foundation Support.
Chu, K. (2023). Vietnam as a significant wood pellet source for South Korea. Vietnam Economic Times.
Horpibulsuk, S., Rachan, R., & Suddeepong, A. (2012). Strength development of soil–cement columns. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Ground Improvement, 165(4), 201–215.
Ikeagwuani, C.C., & Nwonu, D.C. (2019). Emerging trends in expansive soil stabilization: A review. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 11(2), 423–440.
Junginger, M., Goh, C.S., & Faaij, A. (Eds.) (2014). International Bioenergy Trade: Securing sustainable bioenergy supply, demand and markets. Springer Netherlands.
indicators. Eng Geol2016;200:10–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.11.008.
Kim J-M, Choo Y-W, Kim H-S, Kang I-G, Kim G-W, Kim B-S, Balagosa J, Bae GH, Yun JS, Lee MJ, et al. Development of non-cement based soil stabilizer using wood pellet fly ash. Final research report (project No. 2020-Field-01). Korea South-East Power Co; 2021 (KOEN), Korea (in Korean).
Lee, S.-R., Kang, S.B., & Han, G.-S. (2023). Reducing emissions through fuel switching from coal to wood pellets. BioRes, 18(4), 8458–8472.
Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy. (2017a). Korea Renewable Energy 3020 Plan. International Energy Agency.
Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy. (2017b). 8th Basic Plan for Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand. ESCAP Policy Documents Management.
Thek, G., & Obernberger, I. (2012). *The Pellet Handbook: The Production and Thermal Utilization of Biomass Pellets. Routledge
Yi, Y., Liska, M., & Al-Tabbaa, A. (2014). Properties of stabilized soils with GGBS and lime. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 26*(2), 267–274.
This research investigates the use of Wood Pellet Fly Ash Blended Binder (WABB) for sustainable soil stabilization. Designed to incorporate 50% wood pellet fly ash (WA), 30% ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), and 20% cement, WABB aims to utilize a large volume of WA while delivering enhanced mechanical properties for various soils. The study focuses on collapsible sandy soil, such as weathered granite soils (WS), silica sands (SiS), and Saemangeum sands (SaeS). Laboratory tests, including free-free resonant column (FFRC) tests and unconfined compressive strength tests (UCT), were conducted to evaluate the dynamic stiffness and strength properties of WABB-treated soils over curing durations. Results demonstrate that WABB enhances strength, stiffness, and durability, meeting the strength guidelines set by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) for various soil-based structures such as subgrades, embankments, and liquefaction mitigation. These findings highlight WABB’s potential as an eco-friendly and efficient alternative for sustainable geotechnical applications.
Keywords: wood pellet fly ash blended binder, sustainable, soil stabilization, free-free resonant column, unconfined compressive strength
1. Introduction
Ground improvement through soil stabilization is an essential method for enhancing soil properties, particularly strength and resistance to liquefaction. This is achieved by incorporating cementitious binders that transform weak soils into more stable and load-bearing materials (Ikeagwuani et al., 2019; Balagosa et al., 2024). Sandy soils, often prone to deformation and instability when subjected to heavy loads or saturation, present significant challenges in construction, especially for large-scale infrastructure projects (Horpibulsuk et al., 2012).
Sustainable alternatives to traditional binders have gained traction, with biomass-derived materials like Wood Pellet Fly Ash (WA) showing promise. WA, a by-product of wood pellet combustion, is rich in silica and alumina, making it suitable for use as an eco-friendly stabilizer when blended with ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and cement (Abrams, 1918; Kim et al., 2021; Yi et al., 2014; Aguilar et al., 2024). This study explores the potential of Wood Pellet Fly Ash Blended Binder (WABB) as a sustainable soil stabilizer, leveraging its reactivity and durability to address the challenges of stabilizing sandy soils.
WA, a byproduct of burnt wood pellets during energy production, is becoming increasingly prevalent. This increase is due to the growing global preference for sustainable energy sources, with a global wood pellet production reaching 48.8 million metric tons in 2022 from major contributors such as the European Union (21 million tons), North America (14.3 million tons), Vietnam (3.5 million tons), and other regional producers such as China, Thailand, Indonesia, Russia, and Australia (Thek and Obernberger, 2012). Assuming an average ash content of 2% (Junginger et al., 2014), this equates to approximately 980,000 metric tons of WA produced annually worldwide.
South Korea’s rising bioenergy demand has notably influenced its energy policies to curtail carbon emissions (MOTIE 2017a, 2017b), positioning it as a major player in the global biomass market (Milko, 2024). In 2022, South Korea consumed approximately 4.6 million tons of wood pellets (Lee et al., 2023), of which a majority were imported (Chu et al., 2023). The increase in wood pellet energy production leads to an estimated 92,000 metric tons of WA in 2022, which is typically disposed of in landfills. The rise in WA by-products risks saturating landfills, raising environmental concerns, particularly groundwater contamination from leachate interactions. Hence, this study investigates the use of WA as a soil stabilizer in large-scale applications, particularly as an additive binder for soil-cement columns.
Stabilizing road networks in sandy and collapsible soils is critical for press-in pile operations. Properly stabilized roads ensure the smooth entry and operation of heavy equipment, minimizing delays, equipment wear, and energy consumption. This study investigates WABB's efficiency for sustainable ground improvement in various geotechnical applications.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
Three types of soils were selected for this study: Silica Sand (SiS), Saemangeum Sand (SaeS), and Weathered Granite Soil (WS). The properties of these soils are summarized in Table 1. SiS and SaeS are poorly graded sands classified under USCS as SP, while WS includes two variants—WS1 (SP) and WS2 (SM). The chemical properties of WABB constituents, including Wood Pellet Fly Ash (WA), GGBS, and cement, are summarized in Table 2. WA was sourced from biomass power plants in South Korea, featuring a high pH (>12) and fine particle size (d50 = 15.347 x 10-3 mm), making it a reactive component in soil stabilization.
Table 1. Index properties of materials.
| Material | Gs | emax | emin | d50 (mm) |
d10 (mm) |
USCS |
| WS 1 | 2.67 | 1.021 | 0.554 | 1.207 | 0.447 | SP |
| SiS | 2.66 | 1.002 | 0.554 | 0.173 | 0.112 | SP |
| SaeS | 2.67 | 1.001 | 0.544 | 0.328 | 0.125 | SP |
| WA | 10.0 | - | - | 15.347 x10-3 | 2.636 x10-3 |
- |
Table 2. Chemical properties of WABB constituents.
| Material | Blaine (cm2/g) |
Gs | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | SO3 | K2O |
| WA | 3350 | 2.31 | 23.25 | 6.6 | 3.81 | 27.8 | 3.21 | 3.47 | 16.64 |
| Cement | 3240 | 3.15 | 21.88 | 5.02 | 3.66 | 64.18 | 2.01 | 1.83 | 0.92 |
| GGBS | 3300 | 2.85 | 33.4 | 15.8 | 0.6 | 41.8 | 5.3 | 0.3 | 1.5 |
2.2 Laboratory Preparation
A total of 84 specimens were prepared, consisting of 27 each of weathered soil (WS), silica sand (SiS), and Saemangeum sand (SaeS) mixed with wood pellet fly ash blended binder (WABB) composed of dry 50% WA, 30% GGBS, and 20% cement at proportions of 10%, 15%, and 25% by dry mass. The WABB mixed WS were prepared by dry mixing at a high compaction state. Following the optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) of WS with WA at 5%, 15%, and 25%, performed on a separate project. Whereas SiS and SaeS were initially pre-mixed with 8% water by hand for three minutes, after which WABB, prepared with a water-binder ratio of 0.5, was blended into the mixture using a laboratory mixer. The mixtures were then compacted into cylindrical molds (50 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height) in five layers using an 8-mm rod, achieving the target mold densities (ρmold?) were 1.945 ± 05 g/cm³ for WS-WABB, 1.745 ± 05 g/cm³ for SiS-WABB, and 1.656 ± 05 g/cm³ for SaeS-WABB. Then, the specimens were sealed with plastic wrap and cured at 25 ± 1 °C in a controlled chamber with 85 ± 2% humidity for durations of 7, 14, and 28 days, replicating shallow ground conditions without direct immersion in water. Free-free resonant column (FFRC) and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were conducted on all specimens to evaluate their dynamic and compressive properties. Full details of the testing procedures and calculations are available in Balagosa et al. (2024).
3. Results and Discussions
The WS-WABB showed significant strength development between 7 and 28 days, with the compressive wave velocities (Vp) range of 2146 to 2506 m/s and unconfined compressive strength (qu) increasing from 2.82 MPa at 7 days to 6.67 MPa at 28 days for WS (75%) mixed with 25% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%) (Balagosa et al., 2025). These values exceed ACI-230 standards for subbase (1.4 MPa) and base layer (3.5 MPa) applications (ACI, 2009), as well as FHWA requirements for deep mixing of embankments (2.1 MPa) and liquefaction mitigation (4 MPa) (Bruce et al., 2013). At 15% WABB (WS=85% mixed with 15% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)), the qu peaked at 3.5 MPa by 28 days, qualifying for subbase and base layers, while 5% WABB (WS=95% mixed with 5% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)) showed progressive strength but did not meet thresholds for high-stress applications. On the other hand, SiS-WABB specimens demonstrated excellent performance at 25% WABB (SiS=75% mixed with 25% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)), with Vp values of 1461 to 2083 m/s and qu values reaching approximately 0.7 MPa by 7 days and exceeding 1.4 MPa at 14 days, qualifying them for ACI-229 standards for well-compacted backfill (0.3–0.7 MPa) and ACI-230 subbase and subgrade applications. Both 15% (SiS=85% mixed with 15% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)) and 25% WABB (SiS=75% mixed with 25% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)) mobilized 90% of the maximum qu by 14 days, highlighting their effective cementation. Whereas SaeS-WABB, despite its coastal salinity, exhibited substantial strength gain at 25% WABB (SaeS=75% mixed with 25% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)), with Vp values of 1769 to 2258 m/s and qu values ranging from 0.3–0.7 MPa at 7 days to over 2.1 MPa at 14 days, meeting FHWA requirements for embankments and foundations. Lower dosages 10% (SaeS=90% mixed with 10% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)) and 15% WABB (SiS=85% mixed with 15% WABB (WA=50%, GGBS=30%, Cement=20%)) demonstrated reduce WABB cementation capacity.
4. Conclusion
This study examined the effects of WABB on the dynamic and strength properties of silica sand (SiS), Saemangeum sand (SaeS), and albite-based weathered soils (WS). WABB was mixed with these soils at varying proportions, and a series of FFRC and UCT tests were conducted to evaluate the changes in their mechanical properties over curing time. The following conclusions were drawn:
- This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of the dynamic and strength growth properties of WABB-treated sandy soils and weathered soils. The stabilizing mechanisms of WABB, leveraging the hydration characteristics of WA, GGBS, and cement, significantly enhanced the dynamic stiffness and strength of all soil types.
- WS-WABB exhibited the highest dynamic stiffness and strength development among the tested soils, with compressive wave velocities ranging from 2146 to 2506 m/s and unconfined compressive strength increasing from early to later curing stages. These results exceed ACI-230 and FHWA standards, confirming its suitability for subbases, base layers, embankments, and liquefaction mitigation.
- SiS-WABB showed progressive strength gains, with unconfined compressive strength exceeding the thresholds for well-compacted backfill and subgrade stabilization. Similarly, SaeS-WABB demonstrated substantial improvement, meeting FHWA standards for embankments and foundations despite challenges posed by soil salinity.
- WABB is a sustainable and efficient solution for stabilizing sandy soils in various geotechnical applications. By enhancing strength and stiffness, it supports road networks for heavy equipment, piling, and construction activities and ensures the stability of earth structures. Future work should focus on optimizing WABB for diverse soil types, longer curing period, and field conditions.
Acknowledgements:
This work was supported by the field technology research and development project (2020-Field-01) funded by the Korea South-East Power co. (KOEN) and partially by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government and the Ministry of Science and ICT (MSIT) (No. RS-2021-NR059360 and No.RS-2024–00406320) the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) and the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy(MOTIE) of the Republic of Korea (No. RS-2022-KP002820).
References:
Abrams, D.A. (1918). Design of Concrete Mixtures. Bulletin No. 1, Lewis Institute, Chicago.
Aguilar, F.X., Glavonjic, B., Mabee, W., & Vinterbäck, J. (2024). Wood pellets and wood fuel: UNECE/FAO Data Brief 2023. United Nations and Food and Agriculture Organization.
American Concrete Institute (ACI) (2009). 230.1R-09 Report on Soil Cement.
Balagosa, J., Lee, M.-J., Choo, Y.W., Kim, H.-S., & Kim, J.-M. (2024). Dynamic property growth of weathered granite soils stabilized with wood pellet fly ash. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 180, 108627.
Balagosa, J., Seo, S. G., Cho, D. S., Lee, M. J., Choo, Y. W., Kim, H. S., & Kim, J. M. (2025). Field Case Study of Soil Columns Mixed with Wood Pellet Fly Ash Blended Binder in Weathered Granite Soils. Case Studies in Construction Materials, e04378.
Bruce, M.E.C., Berg, R.R., Filz, G.M., Terashi, M., Yang, D.S., & Collin, J.G. (2013). Federal Highway Administration Design Manual: Deep Mixing for Embankment and Foundation Support.
Chu, K. (2023). Vietnam as a significant wood pellet source for South Korea. Vietnam Economic Times.
Horpibulsuk, S., Rachan, R., & Suddeepong, A. (2012). Strength development of soil–cement columns. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Ground Improvement, 165(4), 201–215.
Ikeagwuani, C.C., & Nwonu, D.C. (2019). Emerging trends in expansive soil stabilization: A review. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 11(2), 423–440.
Junginger, M., Goh, C.S., & Faaij, A. (Eds.) (2014). International Bioenergy Trade: Securing sustainable bioenergy supply, demand and markets. Springer Netherlands.
indicators. Eng Geol2016;200:10–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.11.008.
Kim J-M, Choo Y-W, Kim H-S, Kang I-G, Kim G-W, Kim B-S, Balagosa J, Bae GH, Yun JS, Lee MJ, et al. Development of non-cement based soil stabilizer using wood pellet fly ash. Final research report (project No. 2020-Field-01). Korea South-East Power Co; 2021 (KOEN), Korea (in Korean).
Lee, S.-R., Kang, S.B., & Han, G.-S. (2023). Reducing emissions through fuel switching from coal to wood pellets. BioRes, 18(4), 8458–8472.
Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy. (2017a). Korea Renewable Energy 3020 Plan. International Energy Agency.
Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy. (2017b). 8th Basic Plan for Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand. ESCAP Policy Documents Management.
Thek, G., & Obernberger, I. (2012). *The Pellet Handbook: The Production and Thermal Utilization of Biomass Pellets. Routledge
Yi, Y., Liska, M., & Al-Tabbaa, A. (2014). Properties of stabilized soils with GGBS and lime. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 26*(2), 267–274.
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